diff --git a/connection_state.go b/connection_state.go
index 60e1b014..789e2c20 100644
--- a/connection_state.go
+++ b/connection_state.go
@@ -14,6 +14,16 @@ import (
 
 const ReplayWindow = 8192
 
+// sessionEpoch hands out a receiver-local ordinal to every ConnectionState as
+// it is created. The RX staging sort (overlay/batch) orders packets by
+// (epoch, message counter). A re-handshake never rekeys an existing tunnel; it
+// brings up a whole new hostinfo (and ConnectionState) with its own counter
+// space starting near zero, while the old tunnel keeps decrypting in-flight
+// packets until it is torn down. During that cutover one flush batch can hold
+// packets from both tunnels, and the epoch is what keeps the old tunnel's
+// packets sorted ahead of the new tunnel's.
+var sessionEpoch atomic.Uint64
+
 type ConnectionState struct {
 	eKey           noiseutil.CipherState
 	dKey           noiseutil.CipherState
@@ -24,6 +34,8 @@ type ConnectionState struct {
 	window         *Bits
 	decryptLock    sync.Mutex
 	writeLock      sync.Mutex
+	// epoch is this session's sessionEpoch ordinal. Immutable after creation.
+	epoch uint64
 }
 
 // newConnectionStateFromResult builds a fully-populated ConnectionState from a
@@ -38,6 +50,7 @@ func newConnectionStateFromResult(r *handshake.Result) *ConnectionState {
 		eKey:      noiseutil.NewCipherState(r.EKey, r.Cipher),
 		dKey:      noiseutil.NewCipherState(r.DKey, r.Cipher),
 		window:    NewBits(ReplayWindow),
+		epoch:     sessionEpoch.Add(1),
 	}
 	ci.messageCounter.Add(r.MessageIndex)
 	for i := uint64(1); i <= r.MessageIndex; i++ {
diff --git a/outside.go b/outside.go
index a19f2bdb..f6f0c6d1 100644
--- a/outside.go
+++ b/outside.go
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/firewall"
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/header"
+	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/batch"
 	"golang.org/x/net/ipv4"
 )
 
@@ -143,7 +144,7 @@ func (f *Interface) readOutsidePackets(via ViaSender, scratch []byte, packet []b
 	case header.Message:
 		switch h.Subtype {
 		case header.MessageNone:
-			f.handleOutsideMessagePacket(hostinfo, out, scratch, fwPacket, nb, q, localCache)
+			f.handleOutsideMessagePacket(hostinfo, h.MessageCounter, out, scratch, fwPacket, nb, q, localCache)
 		default:
 			hostinfo.logger(f.l).Error("IsValidSubType was true, but unexpected message subtype seen", "from", via, "header", h)
 			return
@@ -500,7 +501,7 @@ func parseV4(data []byte, incoming bool, fp *firewall.Packet) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (f *Interface) handleOutsideMessagePacket(hostinfo *HostInfo, out []byte, scratch []byte, fwPacket *firewall.Packet, nb []byte, q int, localCache firewall.ConntrackCache) {
+func (f *Interface) handleOutsideMessagePacket(hostinfo *HostInfo, messageCounter uint64, out []byte, scratch []byte, fwPacket *firewall.Packet, nb []byte, q int, localCache firewall.ConntrackCache) {
 	err := newPacket(out, true, fwPacket)
 	if err != nil {
 		hostinfo.logger(f.l).Warn("Error while validating inbound packet",
@@ -522,7 +523,7 @@ func (f *Interface) handleOutsideMessagePacket(hostinfo *HostInfo, out []byte, s
 		return
 	}
 
-	err = f.batchers[q].Commit(out)
+	err = f.batchers[q].Commit(out, batch.SortKey{Epoch: hostinfo.ConnectionState.epoch, Counter: messageCounter})
 	if err != nil {
 		f.l.Error("Failed to write to tun", "error", err)
 	}
diff --git a/overlay/batch/batch.go b/overlay/batch/batch.go
index 7eda8c97..eadb8573 100644
--- a/overlay/batch/batch.go
+++ b/overlay/batch/batch.go
@@ -1,14 +1,31 @@
 package batch
 
+// SortKey identifies a packet's position in its sender's transmission order.
+// Epoch is a receiver-local ordinal for the tunnel (ConnectionState) that
+// decrypted the packet. A re-handshake replaces the tunnel outright — new
+// hostinfo, new keys, a fresh counter space — and the replacement's epoch is
+// higher, so during the cutover overlap the old tunnel's packets sort first.
+// Counter is the packet's AEAD message counter within that tunnel. The replay
+// window has already rejected duplicates by Commit time, so keys are unique
+// per tunnel and (Epoch, Counter) is a total order with no ties.
+type SortKey struct {
+	Epoch   uint64
+	Counter uint64
+}
+
 type RxBatcher interface {
-	// Commit commits pkt to be flushed by the batch. The caller must keep pkt valid until the next Flush, and not re-use it.
-	Commit(pkt []byte) error
-	// Flush emits every queued packet. The guarantee is per-flow DATA order:
-	// a flow's payload-bearing packets are never reordered relative to each
-	// other. Cross-flow and cross-lane order is not preserved, and two shapes
-	// may legally be overtaken by later same-flow data: pure ACKs (by design,
-	// stale ACKs are ignored) and unparseable shapes such as fragments (an accepted tradeoff; see MultiCoalescer).
-	// Returns the first error observed; keeps draining so one bad packet doesn't hold up the rest.
+	// Commit stages pkt to be flushed by the batch. key must carry the
+	// packet's session epoch and message counter. The caller must keep pkt
+	// valid until the next Flush, and not re-use it.
+	Commit(pkt []byte, key SortKey) error
+	// Flush emits every staged packet. Packets are first sorted by key, so
+	// within each protocol lane emission follows the sender's transmission
+	// order regardless of arrival order. One shape may legally be overtaken
+	// by later same-flow data: a pure TCP ACK, which does not close its
+	// flow's open coalesce chain (a late ACK is just a stale ACK). Cross-lane
+	// order (TCP vs UDP vs everything else) is not preserved.
+	// Returns the first error observed; keeps draining so one bad packet
+	// doesn't hold up the rest.
 	// After Flush returns, committed payload slices may be recycled.
 	Flush() error
 }
diff --git a/overlay/batch/multi_coalesce.go b/overlay/batch/multi_coalesce.go
index 8a4fceab..3ee4cbe2 100644
--- a/overlay/batch/multi_coalesce.go
+++ b/overlay/batch/multi_coalesce.go
@@ -4,50 +4,64 @@ import (
 	"errors"
 	"io"
 	"log/slog"
+	"slices"
 
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/iputil"
 )
 
-// MultiCoalescer fans plaintext packets out to lane-specific batchers based
-// on the IP/L4 protocol of the packet.
+// MultiCoalescer stages plaintext packets with their (epoch, counter) sort
+// keys, and at Flush replays them in sender-transmission order into
+// lane-specific batchers selected by the IP/L4 protocol of the packet.
 //
-// Lanes are processed independently: the TCP coalescer only sees TCP, the
-// UDP coalescer only sees UDP, and the verbatim lane handles everything else.
-// The ordering contract is per-flow DATA order: a flow's payload-bearing
-// packets are never reordered relative to each other, because a single
-// 5-tuple only ever lands in one lane and each lane emits its slots in
-// creation order. Two shapes are deliberately allowed to be overtaken by
-// later same-flow data:
-//   - pure ACKs, which pass through without sealing the flow's open slot
-//     (a late ACK is just a stale ACK; see TCPCoalescer.commitParsed);
-//   - unparseable in-flow shapes (fragments, IP options), whose lane-level
-//     addVerbatim does not close the flow's open slot either. Closing it
-//     would need a full open-slot barrier (the flow key is unknown when the
-//     parse fails) — an accepted tradeoff: mid-flow fragments are rare and
-//     receivers reassemble regardless of arrival order.
+// Sorting *before* the lanes see anything is what makes the ordering story
+// simple: each lane consumes packets in transmission order, builds its slots
+// in that order, and emits them in creation order. Wire reorder inside a
+// flush batch is repaired here, before it can fragment a lane's coalesce
+// chains, so the lanes carry no reorder-repair machinery of their own.
 //
-// Routing still follows the flow, not the coalesceability: IPv4 fragments
-// keep their L4 proto visible and IPv6 extension chains are walked to the
-// terminal proto, so a flow's non-coalesceable shapes ride its lane as
-// in-lane passthroughs rather than falling to the later-flushed pt lane.
+// The ordering contract is per-tunnel transmission order within each lane:
+// a sender's packets are emitted in the order it encrypted them. Two
+// qualifications:
+//   - a pure TCP ACK may be overtaken by later same-flow data, because it
+//     does not close the flow's open coalesce chain (a late ACK is just a
+//     stale ACK; see TCPCoalescer.commitParsed);
+//   - an unparseable shape (fragment, IP options) seals every open chain in
+//     its lane — its flow is unknowable, so this is the only way to keep
+//     later data from extending a chain that would emit ahead of it. The
+//     packet then rides its lane as an in-lane passthrough, still in
+//     transmission order.
+//
+// Routing follows the flow, not the coalesceability: IPv4 fragments keep
+// their L4 proto visible and IPv6 extension chains are walked to the
+// terminal proto, so a flow's non-coalesceable shapes ride its lane rather
+// than falling to the later-flushed pt lane.
 //
 // Cross-lane order is intentionally NOT preserved across the TCP/UDP/verbatim split.
 type MultiCoalescer struct {
 	tcp *TCPCoalescer
 	udp *UDPCoalescer
 	pt  *Passthrough
+
+	// staged holds this batch's packets and sort keys until Flush. Borrowed:
+	// the caller keeps each pkt alive until Flush returns.
+	staged []stagedPacket
 }
 
-// NewMultiCoalescer builds a multi-lane batcher over w, based on available protocol support.
+type stagedPacket struct {
+	pkt []byte
+	key SortKey
+}
+
+// NewMultiCoalescer builds a multi-lane batcher over w, based on available
+// protocol support. The staging sort applies even when no GSO lane is
+// available: passthrough-only platforms still get transmission-order repair.
 func NewMultiCoalescer(w io.Writer, l *slog.Logger) RxBatcher {
 	m := &MultiCoalescer{
-		pt: NewPassthrough(w),
+		pt:     NewPassthrough(w),
+		staged: make([]stagedPacket, 0, initialSlots),
 	}
 	m.tcp = NewTCPCoalescer(w, l)
 	m.udp = NewUDPCoalescer(w)
-	if m.tcp == nil && m.udp == nil {
-		return m.pt //no offloads? Use verbatim directly.
-	}
 	return m
 }
 
@@ -73,12 +87,40 @@ func isIPv6ExtHeader(nh byte) bool {
 	return false
 }
 
-// Commit dispatches pkt to the appropriate lane based on IP version + L4 proto.
-// On the success path the IP/TCP-or-UDP parse happens here once and the
-// parsed struct is handed to the lane via commitParsed so the lane doesn't re-walk the header.
-func (m *MultiCoalescer) Commit(pkt []byte) error {
+// Commit stages pkt for the next Flush. All parsing and lane dispatch is
+// deferred to Flush so it runs on packets already in transmission order.
+func (m *MultiCoalescer) Commit(pkt []byte, key SortKey) error {
+	m.staged = append(m.staged, stagedPacket{pkt: pkt, key: key})
+	return nil
+}
+
+// compareStaged orders staged packets by (epoch, counter): sender
+// transmission order within a tunnel, tunnel-creation order across a
+// re-handshake cutover. Keys are unique (see SortKey), so this is a total
+// order and sort stability doesn't matter.
+func compareStaged(a, b stagedPacket) int {
+	if a.key.Epoch != b.key.Epoch {
+		if a.key.Epoch < b.key.Epoch {
+			return -1
+		}
+		return 1
+	}
+	if a.key.Counter == b.key.Counter {
+		return 0
+	}
+	if a.key.Counter < b.key.Counter {
+		return -1
+	}
+	return 1
+}
+
+// dispatch routes one packet to the appropriate lane based on IP version +
+// L4 proto. On the success path the IP/TCP-or-UDP parse happens here once
+// and the parsed struct is handed to the lane via commitParsed so the lane
+// doesn't re-walk the header.
+func (m *MultiCoalescer) dispatch(pkt []byte) error {
 	if len(pkt) < 20 {
-		return m.pt.Commit(pkt)
+		return m.pt.enqueue(pkt)
 	}
 	v := pkt[0] >> 4
 	var proto byte
@@ -87,7 +129,7 @@ func (m *MultiCoalescer) Commit(pkt []byte) error {
 		proto = pkt[9]
 	case 6:
 		if len(pkt) < 40 {
-			return m.pt.Commit(pkt)
+			return m.pt.enqueue(pkt)
 		}
 		proto = pkt[6]
 		if isIPv6ExtHeader(proto) {
@@ -96,15 +138,18 @@ func (m *MultiCoalescer) Commit(pkt []byte) error {
 			proto, _, _ = iputil.IPv6FindUpperProtocol(pkt)
 		}
 	default:
-		return m.pt.Commit(pkt)
+		return m.pt.enqueue(pkt)
 	}
 	switch proto {
 	case ipProtoTCP:
 		if m.tcp != nil {
 			info, ok := parseTCPBase(pkt)
 			if !ok {
-				// Malformed/unsupported TCP shape (IP options, fragments, ...).
-				// Handle this via verbatim support in the TCP coalescer, to attempt to preserve flow order.
+				// Unsupported TCP shape (IP options, fragments, ...). Its flow
+				// key is unknowable, so seal every open chain: dispatch runs in
+				// transmission order, and sealing is what keeps later data from
+				// extending a chain that would emit ahead of this packet.
+				m.tcp.sealAllOpen()
 				m.tcp.addVerbatim(pkt)
 				return nil
 			}
@@ -114,17 +159,32 @@ func (m *MultiCoalescer) Commit(pkt []byte) error {
 		if m.udp != nil {
 			info, ok := parseUDP(pkt)
 			if !ok {
+				m.udp.sealAllOpen()
 				m.udp.addVerbatim(pkt)
 				return nil
 			}
 			return m.udp.commitParsed(pkt, info)
 		}
 	}
-	return m.pt.Commit(pkt)
+	return m.pt.enqueue(pkt)
 }
 
+// Flush sorts the staged batch into transmission order, replays it into the
+// lanes, then flushes each lane.
 func (m *MultiCoalescer) Flush() error {
+	// Arrival order is already almost sorted (reorder is the exception, not
+	// the rule), which pdqsort detects and handles in near-linear time.
+	slices.SortFunc(m.staged, compareStaged)
+
 	var errs []error
+	for _, sp := range m.staged {
+		if err := m.dispatch(sp.pkt); err != nil {
+			errs = append(errs, err)
+		}
+	}
+	clear(m.staged) // drop borrowed pkt refs
+	m.staged = m.staged[:0]
+
 	if m.tcp != nil {
 		if err := m.tcp.Flush(); err != nil {
 			errs = append(errs, err)
diff --git a/overlay/batch/multi_coalesce_test.go b/overlay/batch/multi_coalesce_test.go
index 97fc2881..ea138d6c 100644
--- a/overlay/batch/multi_coalesce_test.go
+++ b/overlay/batch/multi_coalesce_test.go
@@ -9,10 +9,19 @@ import (
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/test"
 )
 
-// newTestMultiCoalescer builds a batcher over w and asserts it really is
-// multi-lane. NewMultiCoalescer collapses to a bare Passthrough when w can
-// offload neither protocol, and a test that meant to exercise a lane would
-// otherwise pass vacuously.
+// keySeq hands out SortKeys with ascending counters in a fixed epoch, for
+// tests where commit order IS transmission order.
+type keySeq struct {
+	epoch, counter uint64
+}
+
+func (k *keySeq) next() SortKey {
+	k.counter++
+	return SortKey{Epoch: k.epoch, Counter: k.counter}
+}
+
+// newTestMultiCoalescer builds a batcher over w and asserts the concrete
+// type so tests can reach into the lanes.
 func newTestMultiCoalescer(tb testing.TB, w io.Writer) *MultiCoalescer {
 	tb.Helper()
 	b := NewMultiCoalescer(w, test.NewLogger())
@@ -29,6 +38,7 @@ func newTestMultiCoalescer(tb testing.TB, w io.Writer) *MultiCoalescer {
 func TestMultiCoalescerRoutesByProto(t *testing.T) {
 	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
 	m := newTestMultiCoalescer(t, w)
+	k := &keySeq{epoch: 1}
 
 	tcpPay := make([]byte, 1200)
 	udpPay := make([]byte, 1200)
@@ -38,19 +48,19 @@ func TestMultiCoalescerRoutesByProto(t *testing.T) {
 	icmp[3] = 28
 	icmp[9] = 1
 
-	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, tcpPay)); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, tcpPay), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, tcpPay)); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, tcpPay), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv4(2000, 53, udpPay)); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv4(2000, 53, udpPay), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv4(2000, 53, udpPay)); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv4(2000, 53, udpPay), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	if err := m.Commit(icmp); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(icmp, k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
 	if err := m.Flush(); err != nil {
@@ -65,20 +75,162 @@ func TestMultiCoalescerRoutesByProto(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+// TestMultiCoalescerRestoresTransmissionOrder is the core staging-sort
+// property: packets committed out of counter order (wire reorder inside one
+// flush batch) are replayed into the lanes in transmission order, so the
+// reorder never fragments the coalesce chain — one superpacket, in seq
+// order, exactly as if the wire had never reordered. The retransmit shape
+// falls out of the same key: a retransmit carries a lower seq but a HIGHER
+// counter (it was encrypted later), so it emits after the data it trails.
+func TestMultiCoalescerRestoresTransmissionOrder(t *testing.T) {
+	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
+	m := newTestMultiCoalescer(t, w)
+	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
+
+	// Transmission order: seq 1000 (c1), 2200 (c2), 3400 (c3).
+	// Arrival order: 3400, 1000, 2200.
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(3400, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: 3}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: 1}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: 2}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Flush(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 1 || len(w.writes) != 0 {
+		t.Fatalf("want 1 gso write (unfragmented chain), got gso=%d plain=%d", len(w.gsoWrites), len(w.writes))
+	}
+	g := w.gsoWrites[0]
+	if len(g.pays) != 3 {
+		t.Fatalf("segs=%d want 3", len(g.pays))
+	}
+	const ipHdrLen = 20
+	if seedSeq := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(g.hdr[ipHdrLen+4 : ipHdrLen+8]); seedSeq != 1000 {
+		t.Errorf("seed seq=%d want 1000", seedSeq)
+	}
+
+	// Retransmit: seq 1000 again but counter 4 — sorts after seq 4600 (c3).
+	w.writes, w.gsoWrites, w.order = nil, nil, nil
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: 4}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(4600, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: 3}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Flush(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if len(w.writes) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("want 2 plain writes, got %d (gso=%d)", len(w.writes), len(w.gsoWrites))
+	}
+	first := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(w.writes[0][24:28])
+	second := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(w.writes[1][24:28])
+	if first != 4600 || second != 1000 {
+		t.Fatalf("emission (%d, %d), want (4600, 1000): retransmit must not overtake in-flight data", first, second)
+	}
+}
+
+// TestMultiCoalescerRestoresOrderAcrossFlows scrambles two interleaved flows;
+// the staging sort must repair each flow into one superpacket without any
+// cross-flow contamination.
+func TestMultiCoalescerRestoresOrderAcrossFlows(t *testing.T) {
+	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
+	m := newTestMultiCoalescer(t, w)
+	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
+
+	// Transmission: A.100 (c1), B.500 (c2), A.1300 (c3), B.1700 (c4).
+	// Arrival: A.1300, B.1700, A.100, B.500.
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4Ports(1000, 2000, 1300, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: 3}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4Ports(3000, 2000, 1700, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: 4}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4Ports(1000, 2000, 100, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: 1}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4Ports(3000, 2000, 500, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: 2}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Flush(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("want 2 gso writes (one per flow), got %d (plain=%d)", len(w.gsoWrites), len(w.writes))
+	}
+	for i, g := range w.gsoWrites {
+		if len(g.pays) != 2 {
+			t.Errorf("gso[%d] segs=%d want 2", i, len(g.pays))
+		}
+		const ipHdrLen = 20
+		seedSeq := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(g.hdr[ipHdrLen+4 : ipHdrLen+8])
+		sport := binary.BigEndian.Uint16(g.hdr[ipHdrLen : ipHdrLen+2])
+		switch sport {
+		case 1000:
+			if seedSeq != 100 {
+				t.Errorf("flow A seed seq=%d want 100", seedSeq)
+			}
+		case 3000:
+			if seedSeq != 500 {
+				t.Errorf("flow B seed seq=%d want 500", seedSeq)
+			}
+		default:
+			t.Errorf("unexpected sport %d", sport)
+		}
+	}
+}
+
+// TestMultiCoalescerEpochOrdersAcrossRehandshake: a re-handshake replaces
+// the tunnel, and the replacement's counter space starts near zero — raw
+// counter order would emit the new tunnel's packets first while the old
+// tunnel's backlog is still arriving. The epoch key must dominate:
+// everything from the old tunnel emits before anything from the new one.
+func TestMultiCoalescerEpochOrdersAcrossRehandshake(t *testing.T) {
+	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
+	m := newTestMultiCoalescer(t, w)
+	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
+
+	// New session's first data arrives before the old session's last data.
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 8, Counter: 1}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay), SortKey{Epoch: 7, Counter: 9_000_000}); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Flush(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	// Same flow, contiguous seq, identical headers: after the epoch sort the
+	// two segments append into one superpacket seeded by the OLD session's
+	// packet.
+	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 1 {
+		t.Fatalf("want 1 gso write, got %d (plain=%d)", len(w.gsoWrites), len(w.writes))
+	}
+	const ipHdrLen = 20
+	if seedSeq := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(w.gsoWrites[0].hdr[ipHdrLen+4 : ipHdrLen+8]); seedSeq != 1000 {
+		t.Errorf("seed seq=%d want 1000 (old session first)", seedSeq)
+	}
+}
+
 // TestMultiCoalescerNoUSOFallsThrough verifies that on a queue without USO
 // (older kernel: TSO but no GSO_UDP_L4) the UDP lane never comes up and UDP
 // packets still reach the kernel via verbatim rather than being lost.
 func TestMultiCoalescerNoUSOFallsThrough(t *testing.T) {
 	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true, noUSO: true}
 	m := newTestMultiCoalescer(t, w)
+	k := &keySeq{epoch: 1}
 	if m.udp != nil {
 		t.Fatal("UDP lane must not come up without USO")
 	}
 
-	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv4(1000, 53, make([]byte, 800))); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv4(1000, 53, make([]byte, 800)), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv4(1000, 53, make([]byte, 800))); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv4(1000, 53, make([]byte, 800)), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
 	if err := m.Flush(); err != nil {
@@ -92,26 +244,24 @@ func TestMultiCoalescerNoUSOFallsThrough(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-// TestMultiCoalescerNoOffloadsIsPassthrough covers a queue that can't offload
-// anything. Both lane constructors refuse, so there's nothing left to
-// dispatch between and NewMultiCoalescer hands back the verbatim lane
-// itself — no wrapper, no per-packet protocol demux, and every packet reaches
-// the kernel in arrival order. This is the case Interface.activate used to
-// special-case with a bare Passthrough.
-func TestMultiCoalescerNoOffloadsIsPassthrough(t *testing.T) {
+// TestMultiCoalescerNoOffloadsStillSorts covers a queue that can't offload
+// anything. Both lane constructors refuse, so every packet rides the
+// verbatim lane — but the staging sort still applies, so emission follows
+// transmission order even without GSO.
+func TestMultiCoalescerNoOffloadsStillSorts(t *testing.T) {
 	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: false}
-	m := NewMultiCoalescer(w, test.NewLogger())
-
-	if _, ok := m.(*Passthrough); !ok {
-		t.Fatalf("want a bare *Passthrough when neither offload is available, got %T", m)
+	m := newTestMultiCoalescer(t, w)
+	if m.tcp != nil || m.udp != nil {
+		t.Fatal("no lane may come up without offloads")
 	}
 	pkts := [][]byte{
 		buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, make([]byte, 1200)),
 		buildUDPv4(1000, 53, make([]byte, 800)),
 		buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, make([]byte, 1200)),
 	}
-	for _, p := range pkts {
-		if err := m.Commit(p); err != nil {
+	// Committed in reverse transmission order; keys carry the truth.
+	for i := len(pkts) - 1; i >= 0; i-- {
+		if err := m.Commit(pkts[i], SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: uint64(i + 1)}); err != nil {
 			t.Fatal(err)
 		}
 	}
@@ -124,7 +274,7 @@ func TestMultiCoalescerNoOffloadsIsPassthrough(t *testing.T) {
 	if len(w.writes) != len(pkts) {
 		t.Fatalf("want %d plain writes, got %d", len(pkts), len(w.writes))
 	}
-	// One lane for everything means arrival order survives end to end.
+	// One lane for everything means the sorted order survives end to end.
 	for i, want := range pkts {
 		if !bytes.Equal(w.writes[i], want) {
 			t.Errorf("write %d out of order or corrupt", i)
@@ -173,14 +323,15 @@ func buildUDPv6Fragment(sport, dport uint16, payload []byte) []byte {
 func TestMultiCoalescerIPv6FragmentStaysInLane(t *testing.T) {
 	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
 	m := newTestMultiCoalescer(t, w)
+	k := &keySeq{epoch: 1}
 
-	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6Fragment(2000, 53, make([]byte, 512))); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6Fragment(2000, 53, make([]byte, 512)), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6(2000, 53, make([]byte, 800))); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6(2000, 53, make([]byte, 800)), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6(2000, 53, make([]byte, 800))); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6(2000, 53, make([]byte, 800)), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
 	if err := m.Flush(); err != nil {
@@ -192,25 +343,65 @@ func TestMultiCoalescerIPv6FragmentStaysInLane(t *testing.T) {
 	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 1 {
 		t.Fatalf("want the two whole datagrams coalesced into 1 gso write, got %d", len(w.gsoWrites))
 	}
-	// Arrival order was fragment-then-data; same-lane routing must keep it.
+	// Transmission order was fragment-then-data; same-lane routing must keep it.
 	if w.order[0] != "write" {
 		t.Fatalf("fragment must be emitted before later data (in-lane verbatim), order=%v", w.order)
 	}
 }
 
+// TestMultiCoalescerFragmentSealsUDPChains: an unparseable datagram
+// (fragment) seals every open UDP chain, so datagrams from before and after
+// it land in separate superpackets and the fragment holds its transmission-
+// order position between them.
+func TestMultiCoalescerFragmentSealsUDPChains(t *testing.T) {
+	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
+	m := newTestMultiCoalescer(t, w)
+	k := &keySeq{epoch: 1}
+
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6(2000, 53, make([]byte, 800)), k.next()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6(2000, 53, make([]byte, 800)), k.next()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6Fragment(2000, 53, make([]byte, 512)), k.next()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6(2000, 53, make([]byte, 800)), k.next()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Commit(buildUDPv6(2000, 53, make([]byte, 800)), k.next()); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := m.Flush(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("want 2 gso writes (chains sealed around the fragment), got %d", len(w.gsoWrites))
+	}
+	if len(w.writes) != 1 {
+		t.Fatalf("want the fragment as 1 plain write, got %d", len(w.writes))
+	}
+	want := []string{"gso", "write", "gso"}
+	if len(w.order) != 3 || w.order[0] != want[0] || w.order[1] != want[1] || w.order[2] != want[2] {
+		t.Fatalf("emission order = %v, want %v", w.order, want)
+	}
+}
+
 // TestMultiCoalescerNoTSOFallsThrough mirrors the no-TSO case.
 func TestMultiCoalescerNoTSOFallsThrough(t *testing.T) {
 	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true, noTSO: true}
 	m := newTestMultiCoalescer(t, w)
+	k := &keySeq{epoch: 1}
 	if m.tcp != nil {
 		t.Fatal("TCP lane must not come up without TSO")
 	}
 
 	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
-	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
+	if err := m.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, pay), k.next()); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
 	if err := m.Flush(); err != nil {
diff --git a/overlay/batch/passthrough.go b/overlay/batch/passthrough.go
index 7eb77231..9d1c9308 100644
--- a/overlay/batch/passthrough.go
+++ b/overlay/batch/passthrough.go
@@ -17,7 +17,15 @@ func NewPassthrough(w io.Writer) *Passthrough {
 	}
 }
 
-func (p *Passthrough) Commit(pkt []byte) error {
+// Commit ignores the sort key: a bare Passthrough (no MultiCoalescer in
+// front) emits in arrival order, exactly as before keys existed.
+func (p *Passthrough) Commit(pkt []byte, _ SortKey) error {
+	return p.enqueue(pkt)
+}
+
+// enqueue is the lane-facing half of Commit: MultiCoalescer.dispatch hands
+// packets here already sorted into transmission order.
+func (p *Passthrough) enqueue(pkt []byte) error {
 	p.slots = append(p.slots, pkt)
 	return nil
 }
diff --git a/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce.go b/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce.go
index 2d277c5d..27a384df 100644
--- a/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce.go
+++ b/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce.go
@@ -7,7 +7,6 @@ import (
 	"io"
 	"log/slog"
 	"net/netip"
-	"slices"
 
 	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay/tio"
 )
@@ -28,24 +27,15 @@ const tcpCoalesceMaxSegs = 64
 const tcpCoalesceHdrCap = 100
 
 // coalesceSlot is one entry in the coalescer's ordered event queue.
-// When verbatim is true the slot holds a single borrowed packet that must be
-// emitted verbatim (non-TCP, non-admissible TCP, or oversize seed).
+// When verbatim is true the slot holds a single borrowed packet that is
+// emitted as-is (pure ACK, non-admissible TCP, unparseable, or oversize seed).
 // When verbatim is false the slot is an in-progress coalesced superpacket.
 // hdrBuf is a mutable copy of the seed's IP+TCP header
 // (we patch total length and pseudo-header partial at flush)
 // payIovs are *borrowed* slices from the caller's plaintext buffers.
 // The caller (listenOut) must keep those buffers alive until Flush.
-
-const (
-	verbatimFalse = iota
-	// verbatimTrue means a sync-point packet, that may not be re-ordered
-	verbatimTrue
-	// verbatimACK packets are "passed through" without coalescing, but traffic "after" them may be pulled forward to facilitate coalescing.
-	verbatimACK
-)
-
 type coalesceSlot struct {
-	verbatim uint8
+	verbatim bool
 	// rawPkt is borrowed: the whole packet for verbatim slots, the seed
 	// packet for coalesce slots. A coalesce slot that never grows past one
 	// segment is emitted from rawPkt so its original (already valid) L4
@@ -61,26 +51,20 @@ type coalesceSlot struct {
 	numSeg   int
 	totalPay int
 	nextSeq  uint32
-	// tsVal is the TCP timestamp of the slot's seed segment (uniform across
-	// the slot: headersMatch requires byte-equal options for every append and
-	// merge). Sort key only, see compareCoalesceSlots.
-	tsVal uint32
-	hasTS bool
-	// sealed marks the chain permanently closed: the last-accepted segment had PSH or was sub-gsoSize,
-	// so no append or flush-time merge may follow.
-	// Distinct from eviction out of openSlots (e.g. on seq mismatch),
-	// which leaves sealed=false so reorderForFlush can still merge the slot.
+	// sealed marks the chain permanently closed: the last-accepted segment
+	// had PSH or was sub-gsoSize, so no append may follow. Belt-and-
+	// suspenders with removal from openSlots, which is what actually stops
+	// the append paths from finding the slot.
 	sealed  bool
 	payIovs [][]byte
 }
 
-func (c *coalesceSlot) isVerbatim() bool {
-	return c.verbatim != verbatimFalse
-}
-
 // TCPCoalescer accumulates adjacent in-flow TCP data segments across multiple concurrent flows
 // and emits each flow's run as a single TSO superpacket via tio.GSOWriter.
-// All output, coalesced or not, is deferred until Flush so arrival order is preserved on the wire.
+// It expects its input in sender-transmission order (MultiCoalescer sorts the
+// staged batch by (epoch, counter) before dispatching here) and emits slots in
+// creation order, which therefore reproduces transmission order — modulo the
+// pure-ACK allowance in commitParsed.
 // Owns no locks; one coalescer per TUN write queue.
 type TCPCoalescer struct {
 	w tio.GSOWriter
@@ -130,7 +114,6 @@ type parsedTCP struct {
 	payLen    int
 	seq       uint32
 	flags     byte
-	options   []byte
 }
 
 // parseTCPBase extracts the flow key and IP/TCP offsets for any TCP packet,
@@ -163,10 +146,6 @@ func parseTCPBase(pkt []byte) (parsedTCP, bool) {
 	p.fk.dport = binary.BigEndian.Uint16(pkt[p.ipHdrLen+2 : p.ipHdrLen+4])
 	p.seq = binary.BigEndian.Uint32(pkt[p.ipHdrLen+4 : p.ipHdrLen+8])
 	p.flags = pkt[p.ipHdrLen+13]
-	//window: 14, 15
-	//csum: 16, 17
-	//urg: 18, 19
-	p.options = pkt[p.ipHdrLen+20 : p.ipHdrLen+p.tcpHdrLen : p.ipHdrLen+p.tcpHdrLen]
 	return p, true
 }
 
@@ -208,12 +187,24 @@ func (p parsedTCP) pureAck() bool {
 func (c *TCPCoalescer) Commit(pkt []byte) error {
 	info, ok := parseTCPBase(pkt)
 	if !ok {
+		// Unparseable shape: flow key unknowable, so seal every open chain to
+		// keep later data from extending a chain that would emit ahead of it.
+		c.sealAllOpen()
 		c.addVerbatim(pkt)
 		return nil
 	}
 	return c.commitParsed(pkt, info)
 }
 
+// sealAllOpen closes every open coalesce chain: nothing committed after this
+// call can extend a slot created before it. Called when an unparseable packet
+// arrives — its flow is unknown, so any open chain might be the one whose
+// later data would otherwise leapfrog it.
+func (c *TCPCoalescer) sealAllOpen() {
+	clear(c.openSlots)
+	c.lastSlot = nil
+}
+
 // commitParsed is the post-parse half of Commit. The caller must have
 // already verified parseTCPBase succeeded (info is a valid TCP parse).
 // Used by MultiCoalescer.Commit to avoid re-walking the IP/TCP header
@@ -222,18 +213,20 @@ func (c *TCPCoalescer) commitParsed(pkt []byte, info parsedTCP) error {
 	if !info.coalesceable() {
 		if info.pureAck() {
 			// A bare window/ack update carries no ordering obligation toward
-			// the flow's data: delivering it after later-arriving data only
+			// the flow's data: delivering it after later-transmitted data only
 			// makes it a stale ACK, which receivers ignore. Skipping the
 			// evict keeps a bidirectional flow's inbound data run coalescing
 			// across the peer ACKs interleaved into it — kernel GRO likewise
-			// doesn't flush held data on a pure ACK.
-			c.addVerbatimACK(pkt, info)
+			// doesn't flush held data on a pure ACK. This is the one place
+			// emission can deviate from transmission order.
+			c.addVerbatim(pkt)
 			return nil
 		}
 		// TCP but not admissible (SYN/FIN/RST/URG/CWR or a shape the flow
 		// must observe in sequence). Seal this flow's open slot so later
-		// in-flow packets don't extend it and accidentally reorder past this
-		// verbatim. The len guard skips hashing the 38-byte key on
+		// in-flow packets don't extend it and emit ahead of this verbatim;
+		// with input in transmission order that pins the verbatim's exact
+		// in-flow position. The len guard skips hashing the 38-byte key on
 		// ack-dominant queues, where the map is almost always empty.
 		if len(c.openSlots) != 0 {
 			if last := c.lastSlot; last != nil && last.fk == info.fk {
@@ -267,8 +260,8 @@ func (c *TCPCoalescer) commitParsed(pkt []byte, info parsedTCP) error {
 			}
 			return nil
 		}
-		// Can't extend: evict it from openSlots and fall through to seed a fresh slot.
-		// The slot stays unsealed so reorderForFlush may still merge it.
+		// Can't extend (seq gap from upstream loss, header change, or a full
+		// chain): evict it from openSlots and fall through to seed a fresh slot.
 		delete(c.openSlots, info.fk)
 		if c.lastSlot == open {
 			c.lastSlot = nil
@@ -279,16 +272,18 @@ func (c *TCPCoalescer) commitParsed(pkt []byte, info parsedTCP) error {
 }
 
 func (c *TCPCoalescer) Flush() error {
-	c.reorderForFlush()
+	if c.l.Enabled(context.Background(), slog.LevelDebug) {
+		c.logSeqGaps()
+	}
 	var first error
 	for _, s := range c.slots {
 		var err error
-		if s.isVerbatim() || s.numSeg == 1 {
+		if s.verbatim || s.numSeg == 1 {
 			// A slot that never grew (nor absorbed a merge) is byte-identical
 			// to the packet it was seeded from; ship the original so its valid
 			// checksum rides the DATA_VALID path instead of paying a kernel
-			// software csum. appendPayload and mergeSlots only touch hdrBuf
-			// once numSeg >= 2, so rawPkt is still pristine here.
+			// software csum. appendPayload only touches hdrBuf once
+			// numSeg >= 2, so rawPkt is still pristine here.
 			_, err = c.w.Write(s.rawPkt)
 		} else {
 			err = c.flushSlot(s)
@@ -308,27 +303,11 @@ func (c *TCPCoalescer) Flush() error {
 
 func (c *TCPCoalescer) addVerbatim(pkt []byte) {
 	s := c.take()
-	s.verbatim = verbatimTrue
+	s.verbatim = true
 	s.rawPkt = pkt
 	c.slots = append(c.slots, s)
 }
 
-// addVerbatimACK commits a pure ACK as a verbatim slot that keeps its
-// flow identity and sort keys. Unlike addVerbatim slots it does not split
-// sort runs, so reorderForFlush may sort same-flow data across it (the
-// contract allows data to overtake a bare ACK). A pure ACK's seq is the
-// sender's snd_nxt, which orders it after all data the peer sent before it,
-// and the TSval-first comparator keeps it behind any older-timestamp data.
-func (c *TCPCoalescer) addVerbatimACK(pkt []byte, info parsedTCP) {
-	s := c.take()
-	s.verbatim = verbatimACK
-	s.rawPkt = pkt
-	s.fk = info.fk
-	s.nextSeq = info.seq // totalPay stays 0, so slotSeedSeq yields info.seq
-	s.tsVal, _, s.hasTS = parseTCPOptions(info.options)
-	c.slots = append(c.slots, s)
-}
-
 func (c *TCPCoalescer) seed(pkt []byte, info parsedTCP) {
 	if info.hdrLen > tcpCoalesceHdrCap || info.hdrLen+info.payLen > tcpCoalesceBufSize {
 		// Pathological shape. Can't fit our scratch, emit as-is.
@@ -336,7 +315,7 @@ func (c *TCPCoalescer) seed(pkt []byte, info parsedTCP) {
 		return
 	}
 	s := c.take()
-	s.verbatim = verbatimFalse
+	s.verbatim = false
 	s.rawPkt = pkt // kept for the numSeg==1 fast path in Flush
 	copy(s.hdrBuf[:], pkt[:info.hdrLen])
 	s.hdrLen = info.hdrLen
@@ -347,7 +326,6 @@ func (c *TCPCoalescer) seed(pkt []byte, info parsedTCP) {
 	s.numSeg = 1
 	s.totalPay = info.payLen
 	s.nextSeq = info.seq + uint32(info.payLen)
-	s.tsVal, _, s.hasTS = parseTCPOptions(info.options)
 	s.sealed = info.flags&tcpFlagPsh != 0
 	s.payIovs = append(s.payIovs[:0], pkt[info.hdrLen:info.hdrLen+info.payLen])
 	c.slots = append(c.slots, s)
@@ -424,7 +402,7 @@ func (c *TCPCoalescer) take() *coalesceSlot {
 }
 
 func (c *TCPCoalescer) release(s *coalesceSlot) {
-	s.verbatim = verbatimFalse
+	s.verbatim = false
 	s.rawPkt = nil
 	clear(s.payIovs)
 	s.payIovs = s.payIovs[:0]
@@ -440,8 +418,6 @@ func (c *TCPCoalescer) release(s *coalesceSlot) {
 	s.isV6 = false
 	s.gsoSize = 0
 	s.nextSeq = 0
-	s.tsVal = 0
-	s.hasTS = false
 	c.pool = append(c.pool, s)
 }
 
@@ -500,79 +476,36 @@ func headersMatch(a, b []byte, isV6 bool, ipHdrLen int) bool {
 	return true
 }
 
-// reorderForFlush neutralizes wire-side reorder that the rxOrder buffer
-// couldn't catch (anything crossing a recvmmsg batch boundary).
-// Without this pass a small wire reorder, counter 250 arriving in batch K when
-// 200..249 are coming in batch K+1, would seed an out-of-seq slot first
-// and emit it ahead of the lower-seq slot, manifesting at the inner TCP
-// receiver as a much larger reorder than the wire actually had.
-//
-// Two phases:
-//  1. Sort each verbatim-bounded segment of c.slots by (flow, seq).
-//     Cross-flow ordering inside a segment isn't preserved (it never was
-//     and doesn't matter for any single flow's TCP correctness).
-//  2. Sweep once and merge adjacent same-flow slots whose ranges are now
-//     contiguous AND whose tail is gsoSize-aligned. The tail constraint
-//     matters because the kernel TSO splitter chops at gsoSize from the
-//     start of the merged payload. A short segment in the middle would
-//     desynchronize every later segment.
-//
-// Verbatim slots act as barriers: the merge check skips them on either
-// side, so a SYN/FIN/RST/CWR is never reordered relative to its flow's
-// data.
-func (c *TCPCoalescer) reorderForFlush() {
-	if len(c.slots) <= 1 {
-		return
-	}
-	runStart := 0
-	for i := 0; i <= len(c.slots); i++ {
-		// Only hard verbatims (unparseable, SYN/FIN/RST/CWR, oversized)
-		// split sort runs. Pure-ACK verbatims stay inside the run so
-		// same-flow data separated by an interleaved ACK can still sort
-		// adjacent and merge; their own sort keys keep them ordered.
-		if i < len(c.slots) && c.slots[i].verbatim != verbatimTrue {
+// logSeqGaps reports same-flow seq discontinuities between consecutively
+// created data slots. Input arrives in transmission order (MultiCoalescer
+// sorts by (epoch, counter) before dispatch), so a gap here is traffic this
+// batch never contained: loss upstream of nebula, a reorder spanning a flush
+// boundary (which no intra-batch mechanism can repair), or a retransmit
+// (negative gap). Logged so the operator can quantify how often that happens.
+// The caller gates on debug level, so the map only allocates when asked for.
+func (c *TCPCoalescer) logSeqGaps() {
+	prevByFlow := make(map[flowKey]*coalesceSlot, len(c.slots))
+	for _, s := range c.slots {
+		if s.verbatim {
 			continue
 		}
-		c.sortRun(c.slots[runStart:i])
-		runStart = i + 1
-	}
-	out := c.slots[:0]
-	for _, s := range c.slots {
-		if n := len(out); n > 0 {
-			prev := out[n-1]
-			if !prev.isVerbatim() && !s.isVerbatim() && prev.fk == s.fk {
-				// Same-flow neighbors after sort. If they aren't seq-
-				// contiguous it's a real gap: packets the wire reordered
-				// across batches, or actual loss before nebula. Log it so
-				// the operator can quantify how often it happens
-				if c.l.Enabled(context.Background(), slog.LevelDebug) {
-					if prev.nextSeq != slotSeedSeq(s) {
-						gap := int64(slotSeedSeq(s)) - int64(prev.nextSeq)
-						c.l.Debug("tcp coalesce: cross-slot seq gap",
-							"src", flowKeyAddr(s.fk, false),
-							"dst", flowKeyAddr(s.fk, true),
-							"sport", s.fk.sport,
-							"dport", s.fk.dport,
-							"prev_seed_seq", slotSeedSeq(prev),
-							"prev_next_seq", prev.nextSeq,
-							"this_seed_seq", slotSeedSeq(s),
-							"gap_bytes", gap,
-							"prev_seg_count", prev.numSeg,
-							"prev_total_pay", prev.totalPay,
-						)
-					}
-				}
-
-				if canMergeSlots(prev, s) {
-					mergeSlots(prev, s)
-					c.release(s)
-					continue
-				}
-			}
+		if prev, ok := prevByFlow[s.fk]; ok && prev.nextSeq != slotSeedSeq(s) {
+			gap := int64(slotSeedSeq(s)) - int64(prev.nextSeq)
+			c.l.Debug("tcp coalesce: cross-slot seq gap",
+				"src", flowKeyAddr(s.fk, false),
+				"dst", flowKeyAddr(s.fk, true),
+				"sport", s.fk.sport,
+				"dport", s.fk.dport,
+				"prev_seed_seq", slotSeedSeq(prev),
+				"prev_next_seq", prev.nextSeq,
+				"this_seed_seq", slotSeedSeq(s),
+				"gap_bytes", gap,
+				"prev_seg_count", prev.numSeg,
+				"prev_total_pay", prev.totalPay,
+			)
 		}
-		out = append(out, s)
+		prevByFlow[s.fk] = s
 	}
-	c.slots = out
 }
 
 // flowKeyAddr returns the src or dst address from fk as a netip.Addr for
@@ -591,87 +524,6 @@ func flowKeyAddr(fk flowKey, dst bool) netip.Addr {
 	return netip.AddrFrom4(v4)
 }
 
-// sortRun stable-sorts run by (flowKey, seedSeq) so each flow's slots
-// cluster together in seq order, ready for the merge sweep. Stable so
-// equal-key slots keep their original relative position (defensive — a
-// duplicate seedSeq would already mean something's wrong upstream).
-func (c *TCPCoalescer) sortRun(run []*coalesceSlot) {
-	if len(run) <= 1 {
-		return
-	}
-	// slices.SortStableFunc with a free, non-capturing comparator avoids the
-	// reflection + closure-escape allocations that sort.SliceStable forces.
-	slices.SortStableFunc(run, compareCoalesceSlots)
-}
-
-func compareCoalesceSlots(a, b *coalesceSlot) int {
-	if cmp := flowKeyCompare(a.fk, b.fk); cmp != 0 {
-		return cmp
-	}
-	// A retransmit carries a lower seq but a newer TCP timestamp than
-	// in-flight original data. Emitting it first would advance the
-	// receiver's ts_recent past the original's TSval, and PAWS would then
-	// drop the original as an old duplicate. So order by TSval before seq:
-	// TSval order approximates transmission order (which wire reordering
-	// never changed), and slots whose TSvals tie still get seq-repaired below.
-	// Flows without timestamps fall through to pure seq order, where PAWS cannot apply.
-	// tcpSeqLess is reused for the TSval compare: RFC 7323 defines TSval
-	// comparison in the same serial-number arithmetic.
-	if a.hasTS && b.hasTS && a.tsVal != b.tsVal {
-		if tcpSeqLess(a.tsVal, b.tsVal) {
-			return -1
-		}
-		return 1
-	}
-
-	aSeq, bSeq := slotSeedSeq(a), slotSeedSeq(b)
-	if aSeq == bSeq {
-		return 0
-	}
-	if tcpSeqLess(aSeq, bSeq) {
-		return -1
-	}
-	return 1
-}
-
-// parseTCPOptions attempts to locate timestamps. If it finds them, it returns tsval, secr, true. 0,0,false otherwise.
-func parseTCPOptions(opts []byte) (uint32, uint32, bool) {
-	const timeStampOptionSize = 1 + 1 + 4 + 4
-	const timeStampOptionCode = 0x8
-	const nopOptionCode = 0x1
-	const eolOptionCode = 0x0
-	// Inclusive bound: a timestamp ending exactly at len(opts) is the common
-	// case (Linux emits NOP,NOP,TS as the whole option block). It also
-	// guards opts[i+1] in every arm, since timeStampOptionSize >= 2.
-	for i := 0; i+timeStampOptionSize <= len(opts); /* no increment */ {
-		switch opts[i] {
-		case eolOptionCode:
-			// End-of-option-list: everything after is padding.
-			return 0, 0, false
-		case nopOptionCode:
-			i++
-		case timeStampOptionCode:
-			// we found it!
-			length := opts[i+1]
-			if length != timeStampOptionSize {
-				return 0, 0, false //weird, wrong option?
-			}
-			tsval := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(opts[i+2 : i+2+4])
-			secr := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(opts[i+2+4 : i+2+4+4])
-			return tsval, secr, true
-		default:
-			length := int(opts[i+1])
-			if length < 2 {
-				// Malformed: a non-NOP option shorter than its own
-				// kind+length bytes would loop forever.
-				return 0, 0, false
-			}
-			i += length
-		}
-	}
-	return 0, 0, false
-}
-
 // slotSeedSeq returns the TCP seq of the slot's seed (first segment).
 // nextSeq tracks the seq just past the last appended byte; subtracting
 // totalPay walks back to the seed. uint32 wraparound is the right TCP
@@ -680,114 +532,6 @@ func slotSeedSeq(s *coalesceSlot) uint32 {
 	return s.nextSeq - uint32(s.totalPay)
 }
 
-// tcpSeqLess reports whether a precedes b in TCP serial-number arithmetic
-// (RFC 1323 §2.3). The signed int32 cast turns the modular subtraction
-// into the right comparison even across the 2^32 wrap.
-func tcpSeqLess(a, b uint32) bool {
-	return int32(a-b) < 0
-}
-
-// flowKeyCompare orders flowKeys deterministically. The exact ordering
-// is irrelevant — only that same-flow slots cluster together so the
-// post-sort sweep can merge contiguous pairs.
-func flowKeyCompare(a, b flowKey) int {
-	// Cheap scalar fields first so most non-matching keys short-circuit
-	// without ever calling bytes.Compare. sport is the ephemeral port on
-	// egress flows and discriminates fastest. For matching keys (same
-	// flow), array equality on src/dst inlines to word-sized compares,
-	// so we only pay bytes.Compare when the arrays actually differ.
-	if a.sport != b.sport {
-		if a.sport < b.sport {
-			return -1
-		}
-		return 1
-	}
-	if a.dport != b.dport {
-		if a.dport < b.dport {
-			return -1
-		}
-		return 1
-	}
-	if a.dst != b.dst {
-		return bytes.Compare(a.dst[:], b.dst[:])
-	}
-	if a.src != b.src {
-		return bytes.Compare(a.src[:], b.src[:])
-	}
-	if a.isV6 != b.isV6 {
-		if !a.isV6 {
-			return -1
-		}
-		return 1
-	}
-	return 0
-}
-
-// canMergeSlots reports whether s can fold into prev as one merged TSO
-// superpacket. Same flow, contiguous TCP byte range, equal gsoSize, and
-// fits within the kernel TSO limits. The tail-of-prev check rejects any
-// merge whose first slot ended on a sub-gsoSize segment — kernel TSO
-// would split the merged skb at gsoSize boundaries from the start, so a
-// short segment in the middle would corrupt every later segment. PSH and
-// ECE state must agree across both slots: PSH is a semantic delimiter
-// (preserving the sender's push boundary) and ECE state must be uniform
-// across a window (the same rule canAppend enforces for in-flow appends).
-// The IP-level ECN codepoint must also match: this check calls headersMatch
-// → ipHeadersMatch, which compares the full DSCP/ECN byte, so two slots with
-// differing ECN marks stay separate superpackets, each keeping its own mark.
-//
-// Note: a slot evicted on reorder (canAppend returned false on seq mismatch)
-// stays sealed=false, so this restriction does not block the reorder-fix merge,
-// only chains ended by PSH or a short tail.
-func canMergeSlots(prev, s *coalesceSlot) bool {
-	if prev.sealed {
-		return false
-	}
-	if prev.fk != s.fk {
-		return false
-	}
-	if prev.gsoSize != s.gsoSize {
-		return false
-	}
-	if prev.nextSeq != slotSeedSeq(s) {
-		return false
-	}
-	if prev.numSeg+s.numSeg > tcpCoalesceMaxSegs {
-		return false
-	}
-	if prev.hdrLen+prev.totalPay+s.totalPay > tcpCoalesceBufSize {
-		return false
-	}
-	if len(prev.payIovs[len(prev.payIovs)-1]) != prev.gsoSize {
-		return false
-	}
-	prevFlags := prev.hdrBuf[prev.ipHdrLen+13]
-	sFlags := s.hdrBuf[s.ipHdrLen+13]
-	if (prevFlags^sFlags)&tcpFlagEce != 0 {
-		return false
-	}
-	if !prev.isV6 && !ipv4CanCoalesceID(prev.hdrBuf[:], s.hdrBuf[:], prev.numSeg) {
-		return false
-	}
-	if !headersMatch(prev.hdrBuf[:prev.hdrLen], s.hdrBuf[:s.hdrLen], prev.isV6, prev.ipHdrLen) {
-		return false
-	}
-	return true
-}
-
-// mergeSlots folds src into dst in place: payIovs concatenated, counters
-// and totals updated. The seed header's seq, gsoSize, and fk are unchanged.
-// The caller must release src (it's no longer in c.slots after this call).
-func mergeSlots(dst, src *coalesceSlot) {
-	dst.payIovs = append(dst.payIovs, src.payIovs...)
-	dst.numSeg += src.numSeg
-	dst.totalPay += src.totalPay
-	dst.nextSeq = src.nextSeq
-	dst.sealed = src.sealed // dst is open — canMergeSlots rejects a sealed prev
-	// carry PSH through
-	dst.hdrBuf[dst.ipHdrLen+13] |= src.hdrBuf[src.ipHdrLen+13] & tcpFlagPsh
-}
-
 // ipv4HdrChecksum computes the IPv4 header checksum over hdr (which must
 // already have its checksum field zeroed) and returns the folded/inverted
 // 16-bit value to store.
diff --git a/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce_bench_test.go b/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce_bench_test.go
index 9979566b..da78fbf6 100644
--- a/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce_bench_test.go
+++ b/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce_bench_test.go
@@ -168,9 +168,9 @@ func BenchmarkCommitNonCoalesceableTCP(b *testing.B) {
 	runCommitBench(b, pkts, 64)
 }
 
-// runMultiCommitBench drives MultiCoalescer.Commit. The dispatcher does
-// the IP/L4 parse once and passes the parsed struct to the lane, so this
-// is the bench that shows the savings of skipping the lane's re-parse.
+// runMultiCommitBench drives MultiCoalescer.Commit with in-order keys, so
+// it includes the staging sort's already-sorted fast path plus the
+// dispatch-time parse — the full steady-state cost of the batcher.
 func runMultiCommitBench(b *testing.B, pkts [][]byte, batchSize int) {
 	b.Helper()
 	m := NewMultiCoalescer(nopTunWriter{}, test.NewLogger())
@@ -179,7 +179,7 @@ func runMultiCommitBench(b *testing.B, pkts [][]byte, batchSize int) {
 	b.ResetTimer()
 	for i := 0; i < b.N; i++ {
 		pkt := pkts[i%len(pkts)]
-		if err := m.Commit(pkt); err != nil {
+		if err := m.Commit(pkt, SortKey{Epoch: 1, Counter: uint64(i + 1)}); err != nil {
 			b.Fatal(err)
 		}
 		if (i+1)%batchSize == 0 {
diff --git a/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce_test.go b/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce_test.go
index c77330f7..ff8559b6 100644
--- a/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce_test.go
+++ b/overlay/batch/tcp_coalesce_test.go
@@ -994,108 +994,17 @@ func TestCoalescerIPv6CoalescesEceFlow(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-// TestCoalescerSortsReorderedSeedsAndMerges feeds three same-flow MSS
-// segments out of TCP-seq order (mimicking a wire reorder that escaped
-// the rxOrder per-batch sort). Without the reorderForFlush sort+merge,
-// each out-of-seq arrival would seed its own slot and the slots would
-// emit in arrival order, producing a kernel-visible TCP reorder. With
-// the sort+merge, the three slots are sorted by seq and folded back into
-// one in-order TSO superpacket — same shape the receiver TCP would have
-// seen had the wire never reordered.
-func TestCoalescerSortsReorderedSeedsAndMerges(t *testing.T) {
-	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
-	c := newTestTCPCoalescer(t, w)
-	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
-	// Arrival order: seq 1000, 3400, 2200. The 3400 seeds a separate slot
-	// because 3400 != nextSeq=2200, then 2200 fails to extend the 3400 slot
-	// and seeds its own. Three slots end up in c.slots; reorderForFlush
-	// should sort them into [1000,2200,3400] and merge them back into one.
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(3400, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Flush(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 1 {
-		t.Fatalf("want 1 merged gso write got %d", len(w.gsoWrites))
-	}
-	g := w.gsoWrites[0]
-	if len(g.pays) != 3 {
-		t.Fatalf("merged segs=%d want 3", len(g.pays))
-	}
-	const ipHdrLen = 20
-	if seedSeq := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(g.hdr[ipHdrLen+4 : ipHdrLen+8]); seedSeq != 1000 {
-		t.Errorf("merged seed seq=%d want 1000 (lowest)", seedSeq)
-	}
-}
-
-// TestCoalescerSortAcrossFlowsMergesEachIndependently checks that two
-// flows interleaved with reorder are each sorted-and-merged in isolation
-// without any cross-flow contamination.
-func TestCoalescerSortAcrossFlowsMergesEachIndependently(t *testing.T) {
-	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
-	c := newTestTCPCoalescer(t, w)
-	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
-	// Flow A (sport 1000) seq 100, 1300; flow B (sport 3000) seq 500, 1700.
-	// Arrival: A.1300, B.1700, A.100, B.500 — every flow reordered.
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4Ports(1000, 2000, 1300, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4Ports(3000, 2000, 1700, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4Ports(1000, 2000, 100, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4Ports(3000, 2000, 500, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Flush(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 2 {
-		t.Fatalf("want 2 gso writes (one per flow merged), got %d", len(w.gsoWrites))
-	}
-	for i, g := range w.gsoWrites {
-		if len(g.pays) != 2 {
-			t.Errorf("gso[%d] segs=%d want 2", i, len(g.pays))
-		}
-		const ipHdrLen = 20
-		seedSeq := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(g.hdr[ipHdrLen+4 : ipHdrLen+8])
-		sport := binary.BigEndian.Uint16(g.hdr[ipHdrLen : ipHdrLen+2])
-		// Each flow's merged seed should be the LOWER of its two seqs.
-		switch sport {
-		case 1000:
-			if seedSeq != 100 {
-				t.Errorf("flow A seed seq=%d want 100", seedSeq)
-			}
-		case 3000:
-			if seedSeq != 500 {
-				t.Errorf("flow B seed seq=%d want 500", seedSeq)
-			}
-		default:
-			t.Errorf("unexpected sport %d", sport)
-		}
-	}
-}
-
-// TestCoalescerSortKeepsPSHBoundary verifies that a PSH-sealed slot is
-// not folded into a later seq-contiguous slot — PSH placement is part of
-// the wire signal and merging across it would shift the receiver's push
-// boundary by an arbitrary number of segments.
-func TestCoalescerSortKeepsPSHBoundary(t *testing.T) {
+// TestCoalescerPSHKeepsChainBoundary verifies that a PSH-sealed chain is
+// not extended by a later seq-contiguous segment — PSH placement is part of
+// the wire signal and growing the superpacket past it would shift the
+// receiver's push boundary by an arbitrary number of segments.
+func TestCoalescerPSHKeepsChainBoundary(t *testing.T) {
 	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
 	c := newTestTCPCoalescer(t, w)
 	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
 	// Seq 1000 (no PSH) + 2200 (PSH) → seal one slot with PSH set.
-	// Seq 3400 (no PSH) is contiguous to 3400 from seq 2200+1200; without
-	// the PSH check it would merge in.
+	// Seq 3400 is contiguous to the sealed chain's nextSeq; without the
+	// seal check it would append in.
 	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
@@ -1115,38 +1024,36 @@ func TestCoalescerSortKeepsPSHBoundary(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-// TestCoalescerSortKeepsPassthroughBarrier confirms a verbatim slot in
-// the middle of the queue prevents the post-sort merge from folding
-// across it. Reordered same-flow data on either side of the verbatim
-// is sorted/merged independently.
-func TestCoalescerSortKeepsPassthroughBarrier(t *testing.T) {
+// TestCoalescerSynSealsFlowChain confirms a non-admissible in-flow packet
+// (SYN+ACK here) seals its flow's open chain and holds its emission
+// position: data committed after it seeds a fresh slot and emits after it,
+// never extending a chain created before it.
+func TestCoalescerSynSealsFlowChain(t *testing.T) {
 	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
 	c := newTestTCPCoalescer(t, w)
 	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
-	// First two segments seed S1 (then a 3400 reorder seeds S2).
 	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
+	// Discontiguous seq: evicts the 1000 slot and seeds its own.
 	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(3400, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	// Non-coalesceable packet (SYN+ACK) flushes S1's openSlots entry and
-	// becomes a verbatim barrier in c.slots.
+	// Non-coalesceable packet (SYN+ACK) seals the flow's open slot and
+	// becomes a verbatim slot in c.slots.
 	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(9999, tcpSyn|tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	// Post-barrier same-flow data: should never end up before the SYN.
+	// Post-SYN data: must emit after the SYN, in its own slot.
 	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
 	if err := c.Flush(); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	// All four packets emit as plain writes: 1000 and 3400 are separate
-	// single-segment slots (not contiguous, so the post-sort merge can't
-	// fold them), the SYN is verbatim, and the post-barrier 2200 stays
-	// a single-segment slot after the SYN. The pre-barrier sort must land
-	// 1000 before 3400, and 2200 must never move before the SYN.
+	// All four packets emit as plain writes in creation order: 1000 and
+	// 3400 are separate single-segment slots, the SYN is verbatim, and the
+	// post-SYN 2200 is a fresh single-segment slot after it.
 	if len(w.writes) != 4 || len(w.gsoWrites) != 0 {
 		t.Fatalf("want 4 plain writes, got writes=%d gso=%d", len(w.writes), len(w.gsoWrites))
 	}
@@ -1204,150 +1111,6 @@ func TestCoalescerIPv6DifferingECNReseeds(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-func TestSortRunZeroAllocs(t *testing.T) {
-	c := &TCPCoalescer{}
-	mk := func(srcByte byte, seq uint32, pay int) *coalesceSlot {
-		s := &coalesceSlot{nextSeq: seq + uint32(pay), totalPay: pay}
-		s.fk.src[0] = srcByte
-		return s
-	}
-	run := []*coalesceSlot{
-		mk(3, 5000, 100),
-		mk(1, 1000, 50),
-		mk(2, 2000, 75),
-		mk(1, 900, 50),
-		mk(3, 4900, 100),
-		mk(2, 1925, 75),
-		mk(1, 1050, 50),
-		mk(3, 5100, 100),
-	}
-
-	allocs := testing.AllocsPerRun(100, func() {
-		// Re-shuffle so each run actually does sorting work.
-		run[0], run[1], run[2], run[3] = run[3], run[2], run[1], run[0]
-		c.sortRun(run)
-	})
-	if allocs != 0 {
-		t.Fatalf("sortRun allocates %v times per run; want 0", allocs)
-	}
-}
-
-// TestCoalescerMergeShortTailDoesNotFabricatePSH: a slot sealed by a
-// sub-gsoSize tail segment has psh=true in the chain-closed sense but no
-// PSH flag on any of its packets. When reorderForFlush folds it into the
-// preceding slot, the merged header must not grow a PSH the sender never
-// sent — mergeSlots must copy the wire flag from the source header, not
-// synthesize it from the seal bool.
-func TestCoalescerMergeShortTailDoesNotFabricatePSH(t *testing.T) {
-	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
-	c := newTestTCPCoalescer(t, w)
-	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
-	short := make([]byte, 600)
-	// Arrival: seq 3400 (full), 4600 (short, seals the slot), then the
-	// reordered front of the window: 1000, 2200. Flush sorts the two slots
-	// into [1000..3400) + [3400..5200) and merges them.
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(3400, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(4600, tcpAck, short)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Flush(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 1 {
-		t.Fatalf("want 1 merged gso write got %d (plain=%d)", len(w.gsoWrites), len(w.writes))
-	}
-	g := w.gsoWrites[0]
-	if len(g.pays) != 4 {
-		t.Fatalf("merged segs=%d want 4", len(g.pays))
-	}
-	const ipHdrLen = 20
-	if flags := g.hdr[ipHdrLen+13]; flags&tcpPsh != 0 {
-		t.Errorf("merged header flags=%#x: PSH fabricated by short-tail merge", flags)
-	}
-}
-
-// TestCoalescerMergePreservesRealPSH is the positive companion: when the
-// source slot's tail really carried PSH, the merged header must keep it.
-func TestCoalescerMergePreservesRealPSH(t *testing.T) {
-	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
-	c := newTestTCPCoalescer(t, w)
-	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
-	short := make([]byte, 600)
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(3400, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(4600, tcpAckPsh, short)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Flush(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 1 {
-		t.Fatalf("want 1 merged gso write got %d (plain=%d)", len(w.gsoWrites), len(w.writes))
-	}
-	g := w.gsoWrites[0]
-	if len(g.pays) != 4 {
-		t.Fatalf("merged segs=%d want 4", len(g.pays))
-	}
-	const ipHdrLen = 20
-	if flags := g.hdr[ipHdrLen+13]; flags&tcpPsh == 0 {
-		t.Errorf("merged header flags=%#x: real PSH lost in merge", flags)
-	}
-}
-
-// TestCoalescerSeqWrapAroundSortsAndMerges pins the serial-number
-// arithmetic through the sort-and-merge path: a chain that crosses the
-// 2^32 seq wrap must still sort pre-wrap before post-wrap and merge into
-// one superpacket when contiguous.
-func TestCoalescerSeqWrapAroundSortsAndMerges(t *testing.T) {
-	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
-	c := newTestTCPCoalescer(t, w)
-
-	payA := bytes.Repeat([]byte{'A'}, 32)
-	payB := bytes.Repeat([]byte{'B'}, 32)
-	seqA := uint32(0xffffffe0) // 32 before the wrap: nextSeq lands exactly on 0
-
-	// The post-wrap segment arrives first — wire reorder across a batch
-	// boundary, the case reorderForFlush exists for.
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(0, tcpAck, payB)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(seqA, tcpAck, payA)); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if err := c.Flush(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
-	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 1 {
-		t.Fatalf("want 1 merged gso write across the wrap, got %d (plain=%d)", len(w.gsoWrites), len(w.writes))
-	}
-	g := w.gsoWrites[0]
-	const ipHdrLen = 20
-	if seedSeq := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(g.hdr[ipHdrLen+4 : ipHdrLen+8]); seedSeq != seqA {
-		t.Errorf("merged seed seq=%#x want %#x (pre-wrap segment first)", seedSeq, seqA)
-	}
-	if len(g.pays) != 2 {
-		t.Fatalf("merged segs=%d want 2", len(g.pays))
-	}
-	if !bytes.Equal(g.pays[0], payA) || !bytes.Equal(g.pays[1], payB) {
-		t.Errorf("payload order wrong across the wrap: got %q then %q", g.pays[0][:1], g.pays[1][:1])
-	}
-}
-
 // TestCoalescerNonAtomicSequentialIDsCoalesce: with DF clear, coalescing
 // is allowed when the IPv4 IDs already run seed+1 per segment — kernel
 // TSO's re-stamp then reproduces the originals exactly (the kernel GRO
@@ -1438,178 +1201,87 @@ func TestCoalescerAtomicRandomIDsCoalesce(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
-// buildTCPv4TS is buildTCPv4 with a TCP timestamp option in the standard
-// Linux layout (NOP,NOP,TS — a 32-byte TCP header).
-func buildTCPv4TS(seq uint32, flags byte, tsVal, tsEcr uint32, payload []byte) []byte {
-	const ipHdrLen = 20
-	const tcpHdrLen = 32
-	total := ipHdrLen + tcpHdrLen + len(payload)
-	pkt := make([]byte, total)
-
-	pkt[0] = 0x45
-	pkt[1] = 0x00
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(pkt[2:4], uint16(total))
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(pkt[4:6], 0)
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(pkt[6:8], 0x4000)
-	pkt[8] = 64
-	pkt[9] = ipProtoTCP
-	copy(pkt[12:16], []byte{10, 0, 0, 1})
-	copy(pkt[16:20], []byte{10, 0, 0, 2})
-
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(pkt[20:22], 1000)
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(pkt[22:24], 2000)
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint32(pkt[24:28], seq)
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint32(pkt[28:32], 12345)
-	pkt[32] = 0x80 // doff=8: 32-byte TCP header
-	pkt[33] = flags
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint16(pkt[34:36], 0xffff)
-	pkt[40] = 0x01 // NOP
-	pkt[41] = 0x01 // NOP
-	pkt[42] = 0x08 // TS kind
-	pkt[43] = 10   // TS length
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint32(pkt[44:48], tsVal)
-	binary.BigEndian.PutUint32(pkt[48:52], tsEcr)
-
-	copy(pkt[52:], payload)
-	return pkt
-}
-
-func TestParseTCPOptions(t *testing.T) {
-	ts := func(val, ecr uint32) []byte {
-		b := make([]byte, 10)
-		b[0], b[1] = 0x08, 10
-		binary.BigEndian.PutUint32(b[2:6], val)
-		binary.BigEndian.PutUint32(b[6:10], ecr)
-		return b
-	}
-	cases := []struct {
-		name    string
-		opts    []byte
-		wantVal uint32
-		wantEcr uint32
-		wantOK  bool
-	}{
-		{"empty", nil, 0, 0, false},
-		{"bare TS filling the block exactly", ts(100, 200), 100, 200, true},
-		{"standard linux NOP,NOP,TS", append([]byte{1, 1}, ts(7, 9)...), 7, 9, true},
-		{"unknown option then TS", append([]byte{254, 4, 0, 0}, ts(3, 4)...), 3, 4, true},
-		{"EOL terminates before garbage", append([]byte{0, 0}, ts(1, 2)...), 0, 0, false},
-		{"zero-length option must not hang", []byte{254, 0, 8, 10, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 2}, 0, 0, false},
-		{"TS with wrong length", []byte{8, 4, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1}, 0, 0, false},
-		{"truncated TS", append([]byte{1, 1, 1}, ts(5, 6)[:9]...), 0, 0, false},
-	}
-	for _, tc := range cases {
-		t.Run(tc.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			val, ecr, ok := parseTCPOptions(tc.opts)
-			if val != tc.wantVal || ecr != tc.wantEcr || ok != tc.wantOK {
-				t.Fatalf("parseTCPOptions(%v) = (%d, %d, %v), want (%d, %d, %v)",
-					tc.opts, val, ecr, ok, tc.wantVal, tc.wantEcr, tc.wantOK)
-			}
-		})
-	}
-}
-
-// TestCompareCoalesceSlotsAntisymmetric pins the comparator contract for the
-// retransmit shape: a lower seq with a newer TSval (retransmit) versus a
-// higher seq with an older TSval (delayed original). The TSval must win in
-// BOTH directions — an asymmetric comparator gives SortStableFunc an
-// inconsistent order and unspecified output.
-func TestCompareCoalesceSlotsAntisymmetric(t *testing.T) {
-	mk := func(seq, tsVal uint32, hasTS bool) *coalesceSlot {
-		return &coalesceSlot{nextSeq: seq, tsVal: tsVal, hasTS: hasTS}
-	}
-	original := mk(5000, 100, true)   // sent first, delayed in flight
-	retransmit := mk(1000, 105, true) // sent later, lower seq
-
-	if got := compareCoalesceSlots(original, retransmit); got != -1 {
-		t.Fatalf("compare(original, retransmit) = %d, want -1 (older TSval first)", got)
-	}
-	if got := compareCoalesceSlots(retransmit, original); got != 1 {
-		t.Fatalf("compare(retransmit, original) = %d, want 1", got)
-	}
-
-	// Equal TSvals (a burst within one tick) fall back to seq order,
-	// still antisymmetrically.
-	a, b := mk(1000, 50, true), mk(2000, 50, true)
-	if compareCoalesceSlots(a, b) != -1 || compareCoalesceSlots(b, a) != 1 {
-		t.Fatal("equal-TSval slots must order by seq in both directions")
-	}
-
-	// Timestamp-less flows keep pure seq order.
-	c, d := mk(2000, 0, false), mk(1000, 99, true)
-	if compareCoalesceSlots(c, d) != 1 || compareCoalesceSlots(d, c) != -1 {
-		t.Fatal("mixed/absent timestamps must fall back to seq in both directions")
-	}
-}
-
-// TestCoalescerRetransmitEmitsAfterDelayedOriginal: a retransmit (lower seq,
-// newer TSval) and a delayed original (higher seq, older TSval) land in one
-// flush window. Seq-only sorting would emit the retransmit first; the
-// receiver would advance ts_recent past the original's TSval and PAWS would
-// drop the original. TSval-first ordering must emit the original first.
-func TestCoalescerRetransmitEmitsAfterDelayedOriginal(t *testing.T) {
+// TestCoalescerSeqWrapAroundAppends pins the serial-number arithmetic on the
+// append path: a chain crossing the 2^32 seq wrap must keep extending when
+// contiguous.
+func TestCoalescerSeqWrapAroundAppends(t *testing.T) {
 	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
 	c := newTestTCPCoalescer(t, w)
-	pay := make([]byte, 100)
 
-	original := buildTCPv4TS(5000, tcpAck, 100, 1, pay)
-	retransmit := buildTCPv4TS(1000, tcpAck, 105, 1, pay)
+	payA := bytes.Repeat([]byte{'A'}, 32)
+	payB := bytes.Repeat([]byte{'B'}, 32)
+	seqA := uint32(0xffffffe0) // 32 before the wrap: nextSeq lands exactly on 0
 
-	if err := c.Commit(original); err != nil {
+	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(seqA, tcpAck, payA)); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	if err := c.Commit(retransmit); err != nil {
+	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(0, tcpAck, payB)); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
 	if err := c.Flush(); err != nil {
 		t.Fatal(err)
 	}
-	if len(w.writes) != 2 {
-		t.Fatalf("want 2 plain writes (non-contiguous single-segment slots), got %d writes, %d gso", len(w.writes), len(w.gsoWrites))
-	}
-	firstSeq := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(w.writes[0][24:28])
-	secondSeq := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(w.writes[1][24:28])
-	if firstSeq != 5000 || secondSeq != 1000 {
-		t.Fatalf("emission order (%d, %d), want (5000, 1000): retransmit must not overtake the older-TSval original", firstSeq, secondSeq)
-	}
-}
-
-// TestCoalescerACKDoesNotSplitSortRun: an interleaved pure ACK must not stop
-// wire-reordered same-flow data on either side of it from sorting adjacent
-// and merging — the contract explicitly allows data to overtake a bare ACK.
-// Arrival is D2, ACK, D1; the two data slots must still merge into one
-// superpacket, with the ACK emitted after (its seq is the peer's snd_nxt,
-// which orders it behind the data it followed).
-func TestCoalescerACKDoesNotSplitSortRun(t *testing.T) {
-	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
-	c := newTestTCPCoalescer(t, w)
-	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
-
-	d2 := buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, pay)
-	ack := buildTCPv4(3400, tcpAck, nil)
-	d1 := buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay)
-
-	for _, pkt := range [][]byte{d2, ack, d1} {
-		if err := c.Commit(pkt); err != nil {
-			t.Fatal(err)
-		}
-	}
-	if err := c.Flush(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatal(err)
-	}
 	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 1 {
-		t.Fatalf("want the two data slots merged into 1 gso write across the ACK, got %d gso + %d plain", len(w.gsoWrites), len(w.writes))
+		t.Fatalf("want 1 gso write across the wrap, got %d (plain=%d)", len(w.gsoWrites), len(w.writes))
 	}
-	if got := w.gsoWrites[0].payLen(); got != 2400 {
-		t.Fatalf("merged payload = %d, want 2400", got)
+	g := w.gsoWrites[0]
+	const ipHdrLen = 20
+	if seedSeq := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(g.hdr[ipHdrLen+4 : ipHdrLen+8]); seedSeq != seqA {
+		t.Errorf("seed seq=%#x want %#x", seedSeq, seqA)
 	}
-	if len(w.writes) != 1 {
-		t.Fatalf("want the ACK as 1 plain write, got %d", len(w.writes))
+	if len(g.pays) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("segs=%d want 2", len(g.pays))
 	}
-	if got := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(w.writes[0][24:28]); got != 3400 {
-		t.Fatalf("plain write seq = %d, want the ACK (3400)", got)
-	}
-	if len(w.order) != 2 || w.order[0] != "gso" || w.order[1] != "write" {
-		t.Fatalf("emission order = %v, want [gso write]", w.order)
+	if !bytes.Equal(g.pays[0], payA) || !bytes.Equal(g.pays[1], payB) {
+		t.Errorf("payload order wrong across the wrap: got %q then %q", g.pays[0][:1], g.pays[1][:1])
+	}
+}
+
+// TestCoalescerUnparseableSealsAllChains: an unparseable packet's flow is
+// unknowable, so it must close every open chain. Later data — even data
+// seq-contiguous with a pre-existing chain — seeds a fresh slot and emits
+// after the unparseable packet, exactly as transmitted.
+func TestCoalescerUnparseableSealsAllChains(t *testing.T) {
+	w := &fakeTunWriter{gsoEnabled: true}
+	c := newTestTCPCoalescer(t, w)
+	pay := make([]byte, 1200)
+
+	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(1000, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(2200, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	// IHL=6 fakes IP options: parseTCPBase bails, flow key unknown.
+	opts := buildTCPv4(5000, tcpAck, make([]byte, 500))
+	opts[0] = 0x46
+	if err := c.Commit(opts); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	// Contiguous with the first chain (nextSeq 3400), but that chain is
+	// sealed now: must not append, must not emit before the unparseable.
+	if err := c.Commit(buildTCPv4(3400, tcpAck, pay)); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if err := c.Flush(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatal(err)
+	}
+	if len(w.gsoWrites) != 1 {
+		t.Fatalf("want 1 gso write (pre-fragment pair), got %d", len(w.gsoWrites))
+	}
+	if len(w.gsoWrites[0].pays) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("pre-fragment chain segs=%d want 2", len(w.gsoWrites[0].pays))
+	}
+	if len(w.writes) != 2 {
+		t.Fatalf("want 2 plain writes (unparseable + post-fragment seed), got %d", len(w.writes))
+	}
+	if w.writes[0][0] != 0x46 {
+		t.Errorf("first plain write must be the unparseable packet")
+	}
+	if seq := binary.BigEndian.Uint32(w.writes[1][24:28]); seq != 3400 {
+		t.Errorf("post-fragment data seq=%d want 3400", seq)
+	}
+	if len(w.order) != 3 || w.order[0] != "gso" || w.order[1] != "write" || w.order[2] != "write" {
+		t.Fatalf("emission order = %v, want [gso write write]", w.order)
 	}
 }
diff --git a/overlay/batch/udp_coalesce.go b/overlay/batch/udp_coalesce.go
index ba347807..de5cbf58 100644
--- a/overlay/batch/udp_coalesce.go
+++ b/overlay/batch/udp_coalesce.go
@@ -195,6 +195,15 @@ func (c *UDPCoalescer) Flush() error {
 	return first
 }
 
+// sealAllOpen closes every open coalesce chain: nothing committed after this
+// call can extend a slot created before it. Called when an unparseable packet
+// arrives — its flow is unknown, so any open chain might be the one whose
+// later data would otherwise leapfrog it.
+func (c *UDPCoalescer) sealAllOpen() {
+	clear(c.openSlots)
+	c.lastSlot = nil
+}
+
 func (c *UDPCoalescer) addVerbatim(pkt []byte) {
 	s := c.take()
 	s.verbatim = true