diff --git a/overlay/tio/container_gso_linux.go b/overlay/tio/container_gso_linux.go
index f5260d68..aff23a37 100644
--- a/overlay/tio/container_gso_linux.go
+++ b/overlay/tio/container_gso_linux.go
@@ -8,21 +8,21 @@ import (
 	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
 )
 
-type gsoContainer struct {
-	pq []*tunFile
+type offloadContainer struct {
+	pq []*Offload
 	// pqi is exactly the same as pq, but stored as the interface type
 	pqi        []Queue
 	shutdownFd int
 }
 
-func NewGSOContainer() (Container, error) {
+func NewOffloadContainer() (Container, error) {
 	shutdownFd, err := unix.Eventfd(0, unix.EFD_NONBLOCK|unix.EFD_CLOEXEC)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to create eventfd: %w", err)
 	}
 
-	out := &gsoContainer{
-		pq:         []*tunFile{},
+	out := &offloadContainer{
+		pq:         []*Offload{},
 		pqi:        []Queue{},
 		shutdownFd: shutdownFd,
 	}
@@ -30,12 +30,12 @@ func NewGSOContainer() (Container, error) {
 	return out, nil
 }
 
-func (c *gsoContainer) Queues() []Queue {
+func (c *offloadContainer) Queues() []Queue {
 	return c.pqi
 }
 
-func (c *gsoContainer) Add(fd int) error {
-	x, err := newTunFd(fd, c.shutdownFd)
+func (c *offloadContainer) Add(fd int) error {
+	x, err := newOffload(fd, c.shutdownFd)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
@@ -45,14 +45,14 @@ func (c *gsoContainer) Add(fd int) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (c *gsoContainer) wakeForShutdown() error {
+func (c *offloadContainer) wakeForShutdown() error {
 	var buf [8]byte
 	binary.NativeEndian.PutUint64(buf[:], 1)
-	_, err := unix.Write(int(c.shutdownFd), buf[:])
+	_, err := unix.Write(c.shutdownFd, buf[:])
 	return err
 }
 
-func (c *gsoContainer) Close() error {
+func (c *offloadContainer) Close() error {
 	errs := []error{}
 
 	// Signal all readers blocked in poll to wake up and exit
diff --git a/overlay/tio/tio_gso_linux.go b/overlay/tio/tio_gso_linux.go
index c5eeabb0..d665e585 100644
--- a/overlay/tio/tio_gso_linux.go
+++ b/overlay/tio/tio_gso_linux.go
@@ -4,7 +4,6 @@ import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
 	"os"
-	"runtime"
 	"sync/atomic"
 	"syscall"
 	"unsafe"
@@ -28,7 +27,7 @@ const tunSegBufCap = tunSegBufSize * 2
 const tunDrainCap = 64
 
 // gsoInitialPayIovs is the starting capacity (in payload fragments) of
-// tunFile.gsoIovs. Sized to cover the default coalesce segment cap without
+// Offload.gsoIovs. Sized to cover the default coalesce segment cap without
 // any reallocations.
 const gsoInitialPayIovs = 66
 
@@ -42,9 +41,9 @@ const gsoInitialPayIovs = 66
 // safe.
 var validVnetHdr = [virtioNetHdrLen]byte{unix.VIRTIO_NET_HDR_F_DATA_VALID}
 
-// tunFile wraps a TUN file descriptor with poll-based reads. The FD provided will be changed to non-blocking.
+// Offload wraps a TUN file descriptor with poll-based reads. The FD provided will be changed to non-blocking.
 // A shared eventfd allows Close to wake all readers blocked in poll.
-type tunFile struct { //todo rename GSO
+type Offload struct {
 	fd         int
 	shutdownFd int
 	readPoll   [2]unix.PollFd
@@ -71,12 +70,12 @@ type tunFile struct { //todo rename GSO
 	gsoIovs []unix.Iovec
 }
 
-func newTunFd(fd int, shutdownFd int) (*tunFile, error) {
+func newOffload(fd int, shutdownFd int) (*Offload, error) {
 	if err := unix.SetNonblock(fd, true); err != nil {
 		return nil, fmt.Errorf("failed to set tun fd non-blocking: %w", err)
 	}
 
-	out := &tunFile{
+	out := &Offload{
 		fd:         fd,
 		shutdownFd: shutdownFd,
 		closed:     atomic.Bool{},
@@ -104,7 +103,7 @@ func newTunFd(fd int, shutdownFd int) (*tunFile, error) {
 	return out, nil
 }
 
-func (r *tunFile) blockOnRead() error {
+func (r *Offload) blockOnRead() error {
 	const problemFlags = unix.POLLHUP | unix.POLLNVAL | unix.POLLERR
 	var err error
 	for {
@@ -130,7 +129,7 @@ func (r *tunFile) blockOnRead() error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (r *tunFile) blockOnWrite() error {
+func (r *Offload) blockOnWrite() error {
 	const problemFlags = unix.POLLHUP | unix.POLLNVAL | unix.POLLERR
 	var err error
 	for {
@@ -156,7 +155,7 @@ func (r *tunFile) blockOnWrite() error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (r *tunFile) readRaw(buf []byte) (int, error) {
+func (r *Offload) readRaw(buf []byte) (int, error) {
 	for {
 		if n, err := unix.Read(r.fd, buf); err == nil {
 			return n, nil
@@ -180,9 +179,9 @@ func (r *tunFile) readRaw(buf []byte) (int, error) {
 // readable we drain additional packets non-blocking until the kernel queue
 // is empty (EAGAIN), we've collected tunDrainCap packets, or we're out of
 // segBuf headroom. This amortizes the poll wake over bursts of small
-// packets (e.g. TCP ACKs). Slices point into the tunFile's internal buffers
+// packets (e.g. TCP ACKs). Slices point into the Offload's internal buffers
 // and are only valid until the next Read or Close on this Queue.
-func (r *tunFile) Read() ([][]byte, error) {
+func (r *Offload) Read() ([][]byte, error) {
 	r.pending = r.pending[:0]
 	r.segOff = 0
 
@@ -226,7 +225,7 @@ func (r *tunFile) Read() ([][]byte, error) {
 // decodeRead decodes the virtio header plus payload in r.readBuf[:n], appends
 // the segments to r.pending, and advances r.segOff by the total scratch used.
 // Caller must have already ensured r.vnetHdr is true.
-func (r *tunFile) decodeRead(n int) error {
+func (r *Offload) decodeRead(n int) error {
 	if n < virtioNetHdrLen {
 		return fmt.Errorf("short tun read: %d < %d", n, virtioNetHdrLen)
 	}
@@ -242,7 +241,7 @@ func (r *tunFile) decodeRead(n int) error {
 	return nil
 }
 
-func (r *tunFile) Write(buf []byte) (int, error) {
+func (r *Offload) Write(buf []byte) (int, error) {
 	return r.writeWithScratch(buf, &r.writeIovs)
 }
 
@@ -250,36 +249,33 @@ func (r *tunFile) Write(buf []byte) (int, error) {
 // distinct from the one used by the coalescer's Write path. This avoids a
 // data race between the inside (listenIn) goroutine emitting reject or
 // self-forward packets and the outside (listenOut) goroutine flushing TCP
-// coalescer passthroughs on the same tunFile.
-func (r *tunFile) WriteReject(buf []byte) (int, error) {
+// coalescer passthroughs on the same Offload.
+func (r *Offload) WriteReject(buf []byte) (int, error) {
 	return r.writeWithScratch(buf, &r.rejectIovs)
 }
 
-func (r *tunFile) writeWithScratch(buf []byte, iovs *[2]unix.Iovec) (int, error) {
+func (r *Offload) writeWithScratch(buf []byte, iovs *[2]unix.Iovec) (int, error) {
 	if len(buf) == 0 {
 		return 0, nil
 	}
 	// Point the payload iovec at the caller's buffer. iovs[0] is pre-wired
-	// to validVnetHdr during tunFile construction so we don't rebuild it here.
+	// to validVnetHdr during Offload construction so we don't rebuild it here.
 	iovs[1].Base = &buf[0]
 	iovs[1].SetLen(len(buf))
-	iovPtr := uintptr(unsafe.Pointer(&iovs[0]))
-	// The TUN fd is non-blocking (set in newTunFd / newFriend), so writev
-	// either completes promptly or returns EAGAIN — it cannot park the
-	// goroutine inside the kernel. That lets us use syscall.RawSyscall and
-	// skip the runtime.entersyscall / exitsyscall bookkeeping on every
-	// packet; we only pay that cost when we fall through to blockOnWrite.
+	iovPtr := unsafe.Pointer(&iovs[0])
+	return r.rawWrite(iovPtr, 2)
+}
+
+func (r *Offload) rawWrite(iovs unsafe.Pointer, iovcnt int) (int, error) {
 	for {
-		n, _, errno := syscall.RawSyscall(unix.SYS_WRITEV, uintptr(r.fd), iovPtr, 2)
+		n, _, errno := syscall.Syscall(unix.SYS_WRITEV, uintptr(r.fd), uintptr(iovs), uintptr(iovcnt))
 		if errno == 0 {
-			runtime.KeepAlive(buf)
 			if int(n) < virtioNetHdrLen {
 				return 0, io.ErrShortWrite
 			}
 			return int(n) - virtioNetHdrLen, nil
 		}
 		if errno == unix.EAGAIN {
-			runtime.KeepAlive(buf)
 			if err := r.blockOnWrite(); err != nil {
 				return 0, err
 			}
@@ -291,7 +287,6 @@ func (r *tunFile) writeWithScratch(buf []byte, iovs *[2]unix.Iovec) (int, error)
 		if errno == unix.EBADF {
 			return 0, os.ErrClosed
 		}
-		runtime.KeepAlive(buf)
 		return 0, errno
 	}
 }
@@ -299,7 +294,7 @@ func (r *tunFile) writeWithScratch(buf []byte, iovs *[2]unix.Iovec) (int, error)
 // GSOSupported reports whether this queue was opened with IFF_VNET_HDR and
 // can accept WriteGSO. When false, callers should fall back to per-segment
 // Write calls.
-func (r *tunFile) GSOSupported() bool { return true }
+func (r *Offload) GSOSupported() bool { return true }
 
 // WriteGSO emits a TCP TSO superpacket in a single writev. hdr is the
 // IPv4/IPv6 + TCP header prefix (already finalized — total length, IP csum,
@@ -308,7 +303,7 @@ func (r *tunFile) GSOSupported() bool { return true }
 // slice is read-only and must stay valid until return. gsoSize is the MSS;
 // every segment except possibly the last is exactly gsoSize bytes.
 // csumStart is the byte offset where the TCP header begins within hdr.
-func (r *tunFile) WriteGSO(hdr []byte, pays [][]byte, gsoSize uint16, isV6 bool, csumStart uint16) error {
+func (r *Offload) WriteGSO(hdr []byte, pays [][]byte, gsoSize uint16, isV6 bool, csumStart uint16) error {
 	if len(hdr) == 0 || len(pays) == 0 {
 		return nil
 	}
@@ -356,45 +351,18 @@ func (r *tunFile) WriteGSO(hdr []byte, pays [][]byte, gsoSize uint16, isV6 bool,
 		r.gsoIovs[2+i].SetLen(len(p))
 	}
 
-	iovPtr := uintptr(unsafe.Pointer(&r.gsoIovs[0]))
-	iovCnt := uintptr(len(r.gsoIovs))
-	for {
-		n, _, errno := syscall.RawSyscall(unix.SYS_WRITEV, uintptr(r.fd), iovPtr, iovCnt)
-		if errno == 0 {
-			runtime.KeepAlive(hdr)
-			runtime.KeepAlive(pays)
-			if int(n) < virtioNetHdrLen {
-				return io.ErrShortWrite
-			}
-			return nil
-		}
-		if errno == unix.EAGAIN {
-			runtime.KeepAlive(hdr)
-			runtime.KeepAlive(pays)
-			if err := r.blockOnWrite(); err != nil {
-				return err
-			}
-			continue
-		}
-		if errno == unix.EINTR {
-			continue
-		}
-		if errno == unix.EBADF {
-			return os.ErrClosed
-		}
-		runtime.KeepAlive(hdr)
-		runtime.KeepAlive(pays)
-		return errno
-	}
+	iovPtr := unsafe.Pointer(&r.gsoIovs[0])
+	iovCnt := len(r.gsoIovs)
+	_, err := r.rawWrite(iovPtr, iovCnt)
+	return err
 }
 
-func (r *tunFile) Close() error {
+func (r *Offload) Close() error {
 	if r.closed.Swap(true) {
 		return nil
 	}
 
 	//shutdownFd is owned by the container, so we should not close it
-
 	var err error
 	if r.fd >= 0 {
 		err = unix.Close(r.fd)
diff --git a/overlay/tio/tun_file_linux_test.go b/overlay/tio/tun_file_linux_test.go
index d162c7b3..6a87f487 100644
--- a/overlay/tio/tun_file_linux_test.go
+++ b/overlay/tio/tun_file_linux_test.go
@@ -10,11 +10,12 @@ import (
 	"testing"
 	"time"
 
+	"github.com/stretchr/testify/require"
 	"golang.org/x/sys/unix"
 )
 
 // newReadPipe returns a read fd. The matching write fd is registered for cleanup.
-// The caller takes ownership of the read fd (pass it to newTunFd / newFriend).
+// The caller takes ownership of the read fd (pass it to newOffload / newFriend).
 func newReadPipe(t *testing.T) int {
 	t.Helper()
 	var fds [2]int
@@ -25,70 +26,35 @@ func newReadPipe(t *testing.T) int {
 	return fds[0]
 }
 
-func TestTunFile_WakeForShutdown_UnblocksRead(t *testing.T) {
-	tf, err := newTunFd(newReadPipe(t))
+func TestOffload_WakeForShutdown_WakesFriends(t *testing.T) {
+	pipe1 := newReadPipe(t)
+	pipe2 := newReadPipe(t)
+	parent, err := NewOffloadContainer()
 	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("newTunFd: %v", err)
-	}
-	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = tf.Close() })
-
-	done := make(chan error, 1)
-	go func() {
-		_, err := tf.Read(make([]byte, 64))
-		done <- err
-	}()
-
-	// Verify Read is actually blocked in poll.
-	select {
-	case err := <-done:
-		t.Fatalf("Read returned before shutdown signal: %v", err)
-	case <-time.After(50 * time.Millisecond):
-	}
-
-	if err := tf.wakeForShutdown(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("wakeForShutdown: %v", err)
-	}
-
-	select {
-	case err := <-done:
-		if !errors.Is(err, os.ErrClosed) {
-			t.Fatalf("expected os.ErrClosed, got %v", err)
-		}
-	case <-time.After(2 * time.Second):
-		t.Fatal("Read did not wake on shutdown")
-	}
-}
-
-func TestTunFile_WakeForShutdown_WakesFriends(t *testing.T) {
-	parent, err := newTunFd(newReadPipe(t))
-	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("newTunFd: %v", err)
-	}
-	friend, err := parent.newFriend(newReadPipe(t))
-	if err != nil {
-		_ = parent.Close()
-		t.Fatalf("newFriend: %v", err)
+		t.Fatalf("newOffload: %v", err)
 	}
+	require.NoError(t, parent.Add(pipe1))
+	require.NoError(t, parent.Add(pipe2))
 	t.Cleanup(func() {
-		_ = friend.Close()
-		_ = parent.Close()
+		_ = unix.Close(pipe1)
+		_ = unix.Close(pipe2)
 	})
 
-	readers := []*tunFile{parent, friend}
+	readers := parent.Queues()
 	errs := make([]error, len(readers))
 	var wg sync.WaitGroup
 	for i, r := range readers {
 		wg.Add(1)
-		go func(i int, r *tunFile) {
+		go func(i int, r Queue) {
 			defer wg.Done()
-			_, errs[i] = r.Read(make([]byte, 64))
+			_, errs[i] = r.Read()
 		}(i, r)
 	}
 
 	time.Sleep(50 * time.Millisecond)
 
-	if err := parent.wakeForShutdown(); err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("wakeForShutdown: %v", err)
+	if err := parent.Close(); err != nil {
+		t.Fatalf("Close: %v", err)
 	}
 
 	done := make(chan struct{})
@@ -107,9 +73,9 @@ func TestTunFile_WakeForShutdown_WakesFriends(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestTunFile_Close_Idempotent(t *testing.T) {
-	tf, err := newTunFd(newReadPipe(t))
+	tf, err := newOffload(newReadPipe(t), 1)
 	if err != nil {
-		t.Fatalf("newTunFd: %v", err)
+		t.Fatalf("newOffload: %v", err)
 	}
 	if err := tf.Close(); err != nil {
 		t.Fatalf("first Close: %v", err)
diff --git a/overlay/tio/tun_linux_offload_test.go b/overlay/tio/tun_linux_offload_test.go
index ff080b7c..20ca9cd9 100644
--- a/overlay/tio/tun_linux_offload_test.go
+++ b/overlay/tio/tun_linux_offload_test.go
@@ -309,7 +309,7 @@ func TestTunFileWriteVnetHdrNoAlloc(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 	t.Cleanup(func() { _ = unix.Close(fd) })
 
-	tf := &tunFile{fd: fd}
+	tf := &Offload{fd: fd}
 	tf.writeIovs[0].Base = &validVnetHdr[0]
 	tf.writeIovs[0].SetLen(virtioNetHdrLen)
 
diff --git a/overlay/tio/tun_linux_test.go b/overlay/tio/tun_linux_test.go
deleted file mode 100644
index 607ed828..00000000
--- a/overlay/tio/tun_linux_test.go
+++ /dev/null
@@ -1,38 +0,0 @@
-//go:build !e2e_testing
-// +build !e2e_testing
-
-package tio
-
-import (
-	"testing"
-
-	"github.com/slackhq/nebula/overlay"
-)
-
-var runAdvMSSTests = []struct {
-	name     string
-	tun      *overlay.tun
-	r        overlay.Route
-	expected int
-}{
-	// Standard case, default MTU is the device max MTU
-	{"default", &overlay.tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 1440}, overlay.Route{}, 0},
-	{"default-min", &overlay.tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 1440}, overlay.Route{MTU: 1440}, 0},
-	{"default-low", &overlay.tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 1440}, overlay.Route{MTU: 1200}, 1160},
-
-	// Case where we have a route MTU set higher than the default
-	{"route", &overlay.tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 8941}, overlay.Route{}, 1400},
-	{"route-min", &overlay.tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 8941}, overlay.Route{MTU: 1440}, 1400},
-	{"route-high", &overlay.tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 8941}, overlay.Route{MTU: 8941}, 0},
-}
-
-func TestTunAdvMSS(t *testing.T) {
-	for _, tt := range runAdvMSSTests {
-		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
-			o := tt.tun.advMSS(tt.r)
-			if o != tt.expected {
-				t.Errorf("got %d, want %d", o, tt.expected)
-			}
-		})
-	}
-}
diff --git a/overlay/tun_linux.go b/overlay/tun_linux.go
index a81a958d..44e5e9f6 100644
--- a/overlay/tun_linux.go
+++ b/overlay/tun_linux.go
@@ -176,7 +176,7 @@ func newTunGeneric(c *config.C, l *logrus.Logger, fd int, vnetHdr bool, vpnNetwo
 	var container tio.Container
 	var err error
 	if vnetHdr {
-		container, err = tio.NewGSOContainer()
+		container, err = tio.NewOffloadContainer()
 	} else {
 		container, err = tio.NewPollContainer()
 	}
diff --git a/overlay/tun_linux_test.go b/overlay/tun_linux_test.go
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..1003a165
--- /dev/null
+++ b/overlay/tun_linux_test.go
@@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
+//go:build !e2e_testing
+// +build !e2e_testing
+
+package overlay
+
+import (
+	"testing"
+)
+
+var runAdvMSSTests = []struct {
+	name     string
+	tun      *tun
+	r        Route
+	expected int
+}{
+	// Standard case, default MTU is the device max MTU
+	{"default", &tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 1440}, Route{}, 0},
+	{"default-min", &tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 1440}, Route{MTU: 1440}, 0},
+	{"default-low", &tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 1440}, Route{MTU: 1200}, 1160},
+
+	// Case where we have a route MTU set higher than the default
+	{"route", &tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 8941}, Route{}, 1400},
+	{"route-min", &tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 8941}, Route{MTU: 1440}, 1400},
+	{"route-high", &tun{DefaultMTU: 1440, MaxMTU: 8941}, Route{MTU: 8941}, 0},
+}
+
+func TestTunAdvMSS(t *testing.T) {
+	for _, tt := range runAdvMSSTests {
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			o := tt.tun.advMSS(tt.r)
+			if o != tt.expected {
+				t.Errorf("got %d, want %d", o, tt.expected)
+			}
+		})
+	}
+}
diff --git a/overlay/user.go b/overlay/user.go
index d8b53cf0..f15aafd8 100644
--- a/overlay/user.go
+++ b/overlay/user.go
@@ -24,6 +24,7 @@ func NewUserDevice(vpnNetworks []netip.Prefix) (Device, error) {
 		outboundWriter: ow,
 		inboundReader:  ir,
 		inboundWriter:  iw,
+		numReaders:     1,
 	}, nil
 }